Tuesday, 28 July 2015

SINDROMA DOWN



BATASAN
Nama lainnya adalah Mongolism atau Trisomi 21, yaitu kelainan kromosom berupa trisomi 21, ditandai dengan gejala khas berupa gangguan mental dan gambaran dismorfik wajah.

PATOFISIOLOGI
Angka kejadian sindroma down adalah 1 : 800 kelahiran. Dan usia ibu pada saat hamil merupakan faktor resiko yang penting untuk menentukan kemungkinan bayi lahir dengan sindroma down, yaitu :
·         Usia ibu 35 tahun : 1/385
·         Usia ibu 40 tahun : 1/106
·         Usia ibu  45 tahun : 1/30
Adanya ekstra kromosom nomor 21 memberikan pengaruh pada banyak sistem organ, sehingga membentuk spektrum fenotip sindroma down yang luas, antara lain :
  1. Adanya kromosom 21q 22.3 menyebabkan :
    1. Keterlambatan mental
    2. Gambaran wajah khas (Mongolism)
    3. Anomali jari tangan
    4. Kelainan jantung bawaan
  2. Adanya kromosom 21q 22.1-q 22.2 menyebabkan :
    1. Kelainan susunan saraf pusat (keterlambatan mental)
    2. Kelainan jantung bawaan.

GEJALA KLINIS
  • Gangguan pendengaran, penglihatan dan bicara (artikulasi)
  • Obesitas
  • Keterlambatan motorik, kognitif, bahasa dan kemampuan bersosialisasi
  • Perubahan tingkah laku dan kesulitan belajar
Masalah artikulasi, meningkatnya kecemasan (17,6%), autism, ADHD, kelainan obsesif kompulsif, sindroma tourette dan depresi.

PEMERIKSAAN DAN DIAGNOSIS
  • Anamnesis :
    • Riwayat sering menderita ISPA
    • Muntah sekunder karena atresia duodenal dan gangguan buang  air besar karena Hirschsprung’s Disease
o   Kejang (5-10%), pada bayi terbanyak berupa spasme infantil dan pada anak besar bersifat tonik klonik.

·         Pemeriksaan fisik :
o   Gangguan mental dari sedang sampai dengan berat dengan IQ 20-85
o   Hipotoni yang berkurang dengan bertambahnya usia
o   Brakisefali, mikrosefali, ubun-ubun melebar dan terlambat menutup
o   Fisura palpebra yang miring (slanting), lipatan epikantus bilateral, gangguan refraksi, strabismus, nistagmus dan katarak kongenital
o   Tulang hidung hipoplastik dan flat nasal bridge
o   Lidah yang cenderung menjulur, fisura pada lidah, anak bernafas dengan mulut, berliur, agenesis dan malformasi gigi
o   Telinga kecil, over folded helix, gangguan pendengaran (66-89%) mencapai >  15-20 db.
o   Kelainan jantung bawaan (40-50%), berupa aritmia dan palpitasi
o   Jari tangan pendek-pendek dan gemuk, form finger line, hiperekstensi persendingan jari tangan. 

  • Pemeriksaan laboratorium :
    • Studi sitogenetik : Karyotyping penderita dan orang tua penderia (untuk kepentingan konseling genetik)
    • Pemeriksaan lainnya :
      • Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) : digunakan untuk mendeteksi Trisomi 21 secara cepat, baik pada masa prenatal maupun masa neonatal.
      • Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and Thyroxine (T4) : untuk menilai fungsi kelenjar tiroid. Dilakukan segera setelah lahir dan berkala setiap tahun.
 

  • Pemeriksaan radiologi :
X-foto kepala : brakisefali, mikrosefali, hipoplastik tulang-tulang wajah dan sinus
X-foto tangan : hipoplastik tulang falangs tengah

  • Pemeriksaan lainnya :
EKG : untuk mendeteksi kemungkinan kelaian jantung bawaan
ABR : untuk menentukan derajad gangguan pendengaran/ketulian
DDST : untuk deteksi dini gangguan tumbuh kembang

DIAGNOSIS BANDING
  • Trisomi 18
  • Hipotiroid

PENATALAKSANAAN
Tidak ada pengobatan untuk memperbaiki sindroma down. Prinsip pengobatan medis digunakan untuk memperbaiki kualitas hidup dan memperpanjang usia penderita dengan cara :
  • Pencegahan terhadap infeksi
  • Rehabilitasi medis
  • Alat bantu pendengaran bila didapatkan gangguan pendengaran
  • Pengobatan dan pelatihan perilaku dilakukan jika ada kelainan psikiatri
  • Hormon tiroid diberikan bila didapatkan tanda-tanda hipotiriod, untuk mencegah terjadinya deteorisasi intelektual dan memperbaiki kemampuan individual

PROGNOSIS
Kematian biasanya disebabkan kelainan jantung bawaan. Adanya penurunan kadar IgG menyebabkan penderita rentan terhadap infeksi. Dengan penatalaksaanan multidisiplin penderita diharapkan dapat mandiri dan tidak tergantung dari orang lain.

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

DAFTAR PUSTAKA
1.  Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Knight GJ : Prenatal screening for Down’s syndrome with use of maternal serum markers. N. Engl J Med, 1992 Aug 27; 327 (9) : 588-93.
2.     Pueschel, M.ed. New perspective on Down syndrome : Baltimore Paul Broozes, 1987.
3.  Holtzen, DM. The molecular genetics of Down syndrome, moelec genetic,  M.ed, 1992; 2 : 105-20.

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